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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Spin</span></h1>
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<table class="wikitable float-right">
<tbody><tr>
<th>Spin
</th>
<th>Typ
</th>
<th>Teilchen (Beispiele)
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2aae8864a3c1fec9585261791a809ddec1489950.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 0}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td><a href="Boson" title="Boson">Boson</a>
</td>
<td><a href="Higgs-Boson" title="Higgs-Boson">Higgs-Boson</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c85a18f2b8244ea87f53061eb32b877760caaf55.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:2.965ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar }" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td><a href="Fermion" title="Fermion">Fermion</a>
</td>
<td><a href="Elektron" title="Elektron">Elektron</a>, <a href="Neutrino" title="Neutrino">Neutrino</a>, <a href="Quark_(Physik)" title="Quark (Physik)">Quarks</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1\hbar }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>1</mn>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1\hbar }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/150bbdf6572def597656f5857ac7f77d32ed6718.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.469ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1\hbar }" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td><a href="Eichboson" title="Eichboson">Boson</a>
</td>
<td><a href="Photon" title="Photon">Photon</a>, <a href="Gluon" title="Gluon">Gluon</a>, <a href="W-Boson" title="W-Boson">W-Boson</a> und <a href="Z-Boson" title="Z-Boson">Z-Boson</a>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {3}{2}}\hbar }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>3</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {3}{2}}\hbar }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/88ffeada2db806da3ea7d4196bd86861f1528af1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:2.965ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {3}{2}}\hbar }" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td>Fermion
</td>
<td><a href="Supersymmetrie" title="Supersymmetrie">supersymmetrische Teilchen</a> <small>(hypothetisch)</small>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2\hbar }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>2</mn>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2\hbar }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5094d4ab4c3f40201cbbe7c711dad130531cfb09.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.469ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2\hbar }" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td>Boson
</td>
<td><a href="Graviton" title="Graviton">Graviton</a> <small>(hypothetisch)</small>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p><b>Spin</b> (von <span style="font-style:normal;font-weight:normal"><a href="Englische_Sprache" title="Englische Sprache">englisch</a></span> <span lang="en-Latn" style="font-style:italic">spin</span> ‚Drehung‘, ‚Drall‘) ist in der <a href="Teilchenphysik" title="Teilchenphysik">Teilchenphysik</a> der <a href="Drehimpuls" title="Drehimpuls">Eigendrehimpuls</a> von Teilchen. Bei den <a href="Elementarteilchen" title="Elementarteilchen">fundamentalen Teilchen</a> ist er, wie die Masse, eine <a href="Elementarteilchen#Eigenschaften_aller_Elementarteilchen" title="Elementarteilchen">unveränderliche innere Teilcheneigenschaft</a>. Er beträgt ein <a href="Halbzahlig" title="Halbzahlig">halb-</a> oder ganzzahliges Vielfaches (<b>Spinquantenzahl</b>) der <a href="Reduzierte_Planck-Konstante" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduzierte Planck-Konstante">reduzierten Planck-Konstante</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \textstyle \hbar }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \textstyle \hbar }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ad86c9a94d866d1cb8f56d6dd78c3b261e81a331.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.306ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \textstyle \hbar }" loading="lazy"></span>. Abgesehen davon, dass er nicht durch die (Dreh-)Bewegung einer Masse hervorgerufen wird, hat er alle Eigenschaften eines klassisch-mechanischen Eigendrehimpulses, insbesondere bezüglich <a href="Drehimpulserhaltungssatz" class="mw-redirect" title="Drehimpulserhaltungssatz">Drehimpulserhaltung</a> und <a href="Koordinatentransformation" title="Koordinatentransformation">Koordinatentransformationen</a>, und ist damit auch ein <a href="Axialvektor" class="mw-redirect" title="Axialvektor">Axialvektor</a>. Der Spin kann nur <a href="Quantenmechanik" title="Quantenmechanik">quantenmechanisch</a> verstanden werden. Das <a href="Spin-Statistik-Theorem" title="Spin-Statistik-Theorem">Spin-Statistik-Theorem</a> verbindet den Spin eines Teilchens mit der Art der statistischen Beschreibung mehrerer gleicher Teilchen: Teilchen mit einer halbzahligen Spinquantenzahl befolgen die <a href="Fermi-Dirac-Statistik" title="Fermi-Dirac-Statistik">Fermi-Dirac-Statistik</a> und heißen <a href="Fermion" title="Fermion">Fermionen</a>, Teilchen mit einer ganzzahligen Spinquantenzahl befolgen die <a href="Bose-Einstein-Statistik" title="Bose-Einstein-Statistik">Bose-Einstein-Statistik</a> und heißen <a href="Boson" title="Boson">Bosonen</a>.
</p><p>Bisher sind fundamentale Teilchen mit Spins <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 0\,\hbar ,{\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar ,1\,\hbar }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>0</mn>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 0\,\hbar ,{\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar ,1\,\hbar }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/71187f141bcaa084cc5fe3de24a7e7957a57a2c8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:10.744ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 0\,\hbar ,{\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar ,1\,\hbar }" loading="lazy"></span> bekannt (s. nebenstehende Tabelle). Fundamentale Teilchen mit den Spins <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {3}{2}}\hbar ,2\,\hbar }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>3</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {3}{2}}\hbar ,2\,\hbar }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f3db719427dc414800d7dbdf5e1996a312f0c921.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:6.855ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {3}{2}}\hbar ,2\,\hbar }" loading="lazy"></span> wurden postuliert, aber bislang nicht nachgewiesen.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Anm. 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Bei zusammengesetzten Systemen, z. B. bei <a href="Proton" title="Proton">Proton</a>, <a href="Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a>, <a href="Atomkern" title="Atomkern">Atomkern</a>, <a href="Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a>, <a href="Molek%C3%BCl" title="Molekül">Molekül</a>, <a href="Exziton" title="Exziton">Exziton</a>, <a href="Hadron" title="Hadron">Hadronen</a> wie <a href="%CE%A9-Baryon" title="Ω-Baryon">Ω<sup>−</sup>-Teilchen</a> ergibt sich der Spin durch Addition der Spins und Bahndrehimpulse der Komponenten nach den Regeln der quantenmechanischen <a href="Drehimpulsoperator#Addition_von_Drehimpulsen" class="mw-redirect" title="Drehimpulsoperator">Drehimpulsaddition</a>.
</p><p>Erstmals wurde 1925 dem <a href="Elektronenspin" title="Elektronenspin">Elektron</a> ein Spin <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c85a18f2b8244ea87f53061eb32b877760caaf55.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:2.965ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar }" loading="lazy"></span> zugeschrieben, um eine Reihe unverstandener Details der optischen Spektren von Atomen mit einem einzigen Konzept konsistent erklären zu können<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (zur Entdeckung und Rezeption des Spin siehe <a href="Elektronenspin" title="Elektronenspin">Elektronenspin</a>). Dem Proton wird der Spin <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c85a18f2b8244ea87f53061eb32b877760caaf55.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:2.965ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar }" loading="lazy"></span> seit 1928 zugeschrieben, weil eine Anomalie in der spezifischen Wärme von Wasserstoffgas nicht anders zu erklären ist.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Der halbzahlige Spin kann weder anschaulich noch halbklassisch durch eine Drehbewegung erklärt werden. Eine formale Begründung wurde 1928 in der <a href="Relativistische_Quantenmechanik" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistische Quantenmechanik">relativistischen Quantenmechanik</a> (s. <a href="Dirac-Gleichung" title="Dirac-Gleichung">Dirac-Gleichung</a>) entdeckt. Der halbzahlige Spin der Elektronen und Quarks führt über das <a href="Spin-Statistik-Theorem" title="Spin-Statistik-Theorem">Spin-Statistik-Theorem</a> weiter zum <a href="Pauli-Prinzip" title="Pauli-Prinzip">Pauli-Prinzip</a>, das grundlegend für den Aufbau der <a href="Atomkern" title="Atomkern">Atomkerne</a> und der <a href="Atomh%C3%BClle" title="Atomhülle">Atomhüllen</a> ist. Das Pauli-Prinzip bestimmt damit auch das chemische Verhalten der <a href="Atom" title="Atom">Atome</a>, wie es sich im <a href="Periodensystem" title="Periodensystem">Periodensystem</a> der Elemente ausdrückt. Demnach spielt der halbzahlige Spin beim Aufbau der Materie bis hin zu ihren makroskopischen Eigenschaften eine bestimmende Rolle.
</p><p><a href="Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> benutzt in seinem Buch <i><a href="Eine_kurze_Geschichte_der_Zeit" title="Eine kurze Geschichte der Zeit">Eine kurze Geschichte der Zeit</a></i> eine Pfeil-Analogie zur Veranschaulichung des Spins: „Ein Teilchen mit dem Spin 0 ist ein Punkt: Es sieht aus allen Richtungen gleich aus. Ein Teilchen mit dem Spin 1 ist dagegen wie ein Pfeil: Es sieht aus verschiedenen Richtungen verschieden aus. Nur bei einer vollständigen Umdrehung (360 Grad) sieht das Teilchen wieder gleich aus. Ein Teilchen mit dem Spin 2 ist wie ein Pfeil mit einer Spitze an jedem Ende. Es sieht nach einer halben Umdrehung (180 Grad) wieder gleich aus. Entsprechend sehen Teilchen mit höherem Spin wieder gleich aus, wenn man Drehungen um kleinere Bruchteile einer vollständigen Umdrehung vollzieht. [Zudem gibt] es Teilchen […], die nach einer Umdrehung noch nicht wieder gleich aussehen: Es sind dazu vielmehr zwei vollständige Umdrehungen erforderlich! Der Spin solcher Teilchen wird mit ½ angegeben.“
</p><p>Wichtige Experimente zum Spin beruhen oft darauf, dass ein geladenes Teilchen mit Spin auch ein <a href="Magnetisches_Moment" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetisches Moment">magnetisches Moment</a> besitzt. Beim <a href="Einstein-de-Haas-Effekt" title="Einstein-de-Haas-Effekt">Einstein-de-Haas-Effekt</a> wird ein Eisenstab allein dadurch in eine makroskopische Drehbewegung versetzt, dass die Spins der in ihm befindlichen Elektronen anders ausgerichtet werden. Im <a href="Stern-Gerlach-Versuch" title="Stern-Gerlach-Versuch">Stern-Gerlach-Versuch</a> ermöglichte der Elektronenspin den ersten direkten Nachweis der <a href="Richtungsquantelung" title="Richtungsquantelung">Richtungsquantelung</a>. Die Effekte der magnetischen <a href="Kernspinresonanz" title="Kernspinresonanz">Kernspinresonanz</a> bzw. <a href="Elektronenspinresonanz" title="Elektronenspinresonanz">Elektronenspinresonanz</a> werden in Chemie (<a href="Kernspinresonanzspektroskopie" title="Kernspinresonanzspektroskopie">Kernspinresonanzspektroskopie</a> NMR), Biologie und Medizin (<a href="Magnetresonanztomographie" title="Magnetresonanztomographie">Magnetresonanztomographie</a> MRT) zur detaillierten Untersuchungen von Materialien, Geweben und Prozessen genutzt.
</p><p>Anders als der halbzahlige Spin der Leptonen ergibt sich der ganzzahlige Spin des <a href="Photon" title="Photon">Photons</a> (<a href="Lichtquant" class="mw-redirect" title="Lichtquant">Lichtquant</a>) schon aus der lange bekannten Existenz elektromagnetischer Wellen mit zirkulärer <a href="Polarisation" title="Polarisation">Polarisation</a>. Ein direkter experimenteller Nachweis gelang 1936 anhand der Übertragung des Photonenspins auf ein makroskopisches Objekt, das daraufhin eine Drehbewegung zeigte.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spinoperator,_Eigenwerte_und_Quantenzahlen"><span id="Spinoperator.2C_Eigenwerte_und_Quantenzahlen"></span>Spinoperator, Eigenwerte und Quantenzahlen <span id="Spinoperator"></span></h2></div>
<p>Der Spinoperator <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}=({\hat {s}}_{x},\,{\hat {s}}_{y},\,{\hat {s}}_{z})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
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<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
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<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
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<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
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<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>y</mi>
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<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
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<mi>z</mi>
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<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}=({\hat {s}}_{x},\,{\hat {s}}_{y},\,{\hat {s}}_{z})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/033cb822468a352825dce3a7e2280fee64f414b4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:16.105ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}=({\hat {s}}_{x},\,{\hat {s}}_{y},\,{\hat {s}}_{z})}" loading="lazy"></span> gehorcht denselben drei <a href="Vertauschungsrelation" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertauschungsrelation">Vertauschungsrelationen</a> wie der Operator von <a href="Drehimpulsoperator" class="mw-redirect" title="Drehimpulsoperator">Bahndrehimpuls</a> und <a href="Gesamtdrehimpuls" title="Gesamtdrehimpuls">Gesamtdrehimpuls</a>:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle [{\hat {s}}_{x},{\hat {s}}_{y}]=i\hbar {\hat {s}}_{z}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">[</mo>
<msub>
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<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
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<mi>y</mi>
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<mo stretchy="false">]</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
<msub>
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<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
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</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>z</mi>
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</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle [{\hat {s}}_{x},{\hat {s}}_{y}]=i\hbar {\hat {s}}_{z}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7faa2ab8788285d54cc583b9d58307b0675aaf8a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:14.633ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle [{\hat {s}}_{x},{\hat {s}}_{y}]=i\hbar {\hat {s}}_{z}}" loading="lazy"></span> (auch für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x,y,z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x,y,z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bbeca34b28f569a407ef74a955d041df9f360268.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.641ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x,y,z}" loading="lazy"></span> <a href="Zyklische_Permutation" title="Zyklische Permutation">zyklisch vertauscht</a>)</dd></dl>
<p>Daher gelten hier auch alle anderen allgemeinen Regeln des quantenmechanischen Drehimpulses. Während für den Bahndrehimpuls <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {l}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mi>l</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
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<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {l}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e26b8c8170c0deac01269e16afb7d7e3862c1d89.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.322ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {l}}}}" loading="lazy"></span> aufgrund von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {l}}}\cdot {\hat {\vec {p}}}=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mi>l</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
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<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
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<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
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<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
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<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {l}}}\cdot {\hat {\vec {p}}}=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/074a78c556b518f7cd721662667f07b6d88671e6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:8.621ex; height:3.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {l}}}\cdot {\hat {\vec {p}}}=0}" loading="lazy"></span> nur ganzzahlige Vielfache der reduzierten <a href="Planck-Konstante" title="Planck-Konstante">Planck-Konstante</a> als Eigenwerte vorkommen können,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sind als Eigenwerte für den Spin auch halbzahlige Vielfache möglich.
</p><p>Da die drei Komponenten nicht miteinander vertauschbar sind, wählt man als maximal möglichen Satz vertauschbarer Operatoren, analog zum Bahndrehimpuls, das Quadrat der Größe, <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
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<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0b172c3288f21d5ae7fbc0a176f1fcf0052408fe.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.312ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span>, und seine <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Komponente, <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{z}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{z}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7ca5248c15cbf544000a9cb9452ef0f571ed9fe3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.293ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{z}}" loading="lazy"></span> (die Projektion auf die <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Achse)</span>. Ein Eigenzustand des Teilchens zu <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
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<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
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<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0b172c3288f21d5ae7fbc0a176f1fcf0052408fe.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.312ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> hat den Eigenwert <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s{\mathord {(}}{\mathord {s}}+{\mathord {1}})\,\hbar ^{2}}">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>s</mi>
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<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s{\mathord {(}}{\mathord {s}}+{\mathord {1}})\,\hbar ^{2}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/294098a618b044a6f428aa41bfe11968064fba78.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.756ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s{\mathord {(}}{\mathord {s}}+{\mathord {1}})\,\hbar ^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span>; der Wertevorrat für die Spinquantenzahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,s}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>s</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,s}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a8ecb5d31c343d45331201523dd8c8a4a029a5e5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.478ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,s}" loading="lazy"></span> ist dabei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s=0,\,{\tfrac {1}{2}},\,1,\,{\tfrac {3}{2}}\;\dots }">
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<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
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<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
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<mo>,</mo>
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<mo>,</mo>
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<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s=0,\,{\tfrac {1}{2}},\,1,\,{\tfrac {3}{2}}\;\dots }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f3ec10b599b1e30bff7ba199d8a296488a0c6718.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:17.849ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s=0,\,{\tfrac {1}{2}},\,1,\,{\tfrac {3}{2}}\;\dots }" loading="lazy"></span>. Zur Abkürzung wird ein Teilchen mit Spinquantenzahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,s}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>s</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,s}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a8ecb5d31c343d45331201523dd8c8a4a029a5e5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.478ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,s}" loading="lazy"></span> meist als „Teilchen mit Spin <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,s}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>s</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,s}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a8ecb5d31c343d45331201523dd8c8a4a029a5e5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.478ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,s}" loading="lazy"></span>“ bezeichnet.
</p><p>Die Eigenwerte für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{z}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{z}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7ca5248c15cbf544000a9cb9452ef0f571ed9fe3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.293ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{z}}" loading="lazy"></span> werden mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,m_{s}\hbar }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>s</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,m_{s}\hbar }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/59f7812cbefd53b5cbcd40e16f85f6c2bad165e9.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.737ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,m_{s}\hbar }" loading="lazy"></span> bezeichnet. Darin hat die <a href="Magnetische_Quantenzahl" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetische Quantenzahl">magnetische Spinquantenzahl</a> einen der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,({\mathord {2}}{\mathord {s}}+{\mathord {1}})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>s</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,({\mathord {2}}{\mathord {s}}+{\mathord {1}})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8f8b6de02ebbea9854496ddd2a8e38d0220b4ef3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.452ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,({\mathord {2}}{\mathord {s}}+{\mathord {1}})}" loading="lazy"></span> Werte <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,m_{s}=-s,\,-(s-{\mathord {1}}),\,\dots ,\,+s}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>s</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>s</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,m_{s}=-s,\,-(s-{\mathord {1}}),\,\dots ,\,+s}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f6293d575dc736a193dadd5c6849f456b656443a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:28.411ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,m_{s}=-s,\,-(s-{\mathord {1}}),\,\dots ,\,+s}" loading="lazy"></span>, die alle zusammen je nach Wert <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,s}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>s</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,s}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a8ecb5d31c343d45331201523dd8c8a4a029a5e5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.478ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,s}" loading="lazy"></span> entweder nur halbzahlig (dann in gerader Anzahl) oder nur ganzzahlig (dann in ungerader Anzahl) sind.
</p><p>Beobachtete Werte für die Spinquantenzahl elementarer Teilchen sind
</p>
<ul><li><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,s={\tfrac {1}{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,s={\tfrac {1}{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/404346b87463092205cddcb36241f6a84f0b7abe.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:6.234ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,s={\tfrac {1}{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span> für alle <a href="Elementarteilchen" title="Elementarteilchen">Elementarteilchen</a> vom Typ <a href="Fermion" title="Fermion">Fermion</a>, z. B. <a href="Elektron" title="Elektron">Elektron</a>, <a href="Neutrino" title="Neutrino">Neutrino</a>, <a href="Quark_(Physik)" title="Quark (Physik)">Quarks</a>.</li>
<li><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,s=1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,s=1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1ba94da478ff0ba63a4f223a0085e395bc1bf245.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.738ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,s=1}" loading="lazy"></span> für die <a href="Austauschboson" class="mw-redirect" title="Austauschboson">Austauschbosonen</a>: <a href="Photon" title="Photon">Photon</a>, <a href="Gluon" title="Gluon">Gluon</a>, <a href="W-Boson" title="W-Boson">W-Boson</a> und <a href="Z-Boson" title="Z-Boson">Z-Boson</a>.</li>
<li><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,s=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,s=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/33ee1d0a3713a879dd09b2cc1b06426d13429430.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.738ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,s=0}" loading="lazy"></span> für das <a href="Higgs-Boson" title="Higgs-Boson">Higgs-Boson</a>.</li></ul>
<p>Die Regeln für die <a href="Drehimpulsoperator#Addition_von_Drehimpulsen" class="mw-redirect" title="Drehimpulsoperator">Addition von zwei Drehimpulsen</a> gelten völlig gleich für Bahndrehimpuls und Spin. Daher entsteht durch die Addition von zwei halbzahligen Drehimpulsen ein ganzzahliger (wie bei zwei ganzzahligen auch), während sich ein halbzahliger und ein ganzzahliger Drehimpuls zu einem halbzahligen Drehimpuls addieren. Ein System aus Bosonen und Fermionen hat daher genau dann einen halbzahligen Gesamtdrehimpuls, wenn es eine ungerade Anzahl Fermionen enthält.
</p><p>Auch bei vielen zusammengesetzten Teilchen und <a href="Quasiteilchen" title="Quasiteilchen">Quasiteilchen</a> wird in der Umgangssprache der Physik der Drehimpuls um den Schwerpunkt als Spin bezeichnet (z. B. bei Proton, Neutron, Atomkern, Atom, …). Hier kann er bei derselben Teilchenart je nach angeregtem Zustand des Teilchens dann auch verschiedene Werte haben. In diesen zusammengesetzten Systemen wird der Drehimpuls nach den allgemeingültigen Regeln der quantenmechanischen Addition aus den Spins und Bahndrehimpulsen ihrer fundamentalen Bestandteile gebildet. Sie werden hier nicht weiter berücksichtigt.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Boson,_Fermion,_Teilchenzahlerhaltung"><span id="Boson.2C_Fermion.2C_Teilchenzahlerhaltung"></span>Boson, Fermion, Teilchenzahlerhaltung</h2></div>
<p>Der Spin führt zur grundlegenden und unveränderlichen Klassifizierung der Elementarteilchen in <a href="Boson" title="Boson">Bosonen</a> (Spin ganzzahlig) und <a href="Fermion" title="Fermion">Fermionen</a> (Spin halbzahlig). Dies ist eine Grundlage des <a href="Standardmodell" title="Standardmodell">Standardmodells</a> der Teilchenphysik. Damit ist auch der Gesamtdrehimpuls eines Fermions in jedem denkbaren Zustand halbzahlig, der eines Bosons ganzzahlig. Weiter folgt, dass ein System, das außer einer beliebigen Zahl Bosonen eine ungerade Anzahl von Fermionen enthält, nur einen halbzahligen Gesamtdrehimpuls haben kann, und mit einer geraden Anzahl Fermionen nur einen ganzzahligen Gesamtdrehimpuls.
</p><p>Aus dem <a href="Drehimpuls#Drehimpulserhaltung" title="Drehimpuls">Satz von der Erhaltung des Gesamtdrehimpulses</a> eines Systems bei allen möglichen Prozessen folgt die – mit der Beobachtung übereinstimmende – Einschränkung, dass die Fermionen sich nur in Paaren <a href="Zweite_Quantisierung#Erzeugungs-,_Vernichtungs-_und_Teilchenzahloperatoren" title="Zweite Quantisierung">erzeugen oder vernichten</a> lassen, nie einzeln, weil sich sonst der Gesamtdrehimpuls von einem ganzzahligen zu einem halbzahligen Wert oder umgekehrt ändern müsste. Bosonen (wie z. B. Lichtquanten) hingegen können auch einzeln erzeugt oder vernichtet werden.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vertauschungssymmetrie,_Statistik,_Pauli-Prinzip"><span id="Vertauschungssymmetrie.2C_Statistik.2C_Pauli-Prinzip"></span>Vertauschungssymmetrie, Statistik, Pauli-Prinzip</h2></div>
<p>Die Klasseneinteilung in <a href="Boson" title="Boson">Bosonen</a> (Spin ganzzahlig) und <a href="Fermion" title="Fermion">Fermionen</a> (Spin halbzahlig) hat starke Auswirkungen auf die möglichen Zustände und Prozesse eines Systems, in dem mehrere Teilchen gleicher Art vorhanden sind. Da wegen der <a href="Ununterscheidbare_Teilchen" title="Ununterscheidbare Teilchen">Ununterscheidbarkeit</a> gleichartiger Teilchen das Vertauschen von zweien von ihnen denselben physikalischen Zustand des Systems herstellt, kann auch der <a href="Zustandsvektor" class="mw-redirect" title="Zustandsvektor">Zustandsvektor</a> (oder die <a href="Wellenfunktion" title="Wellenfunktion">Wellenfunktion</a>) bei dieser Vertauschung nur derselbe bleiben oder sein Vorzeichen wechseln. Alle Beobachtungen zeigen, dass für Bosonen immer der erste Fall gilt (<a href="Symmetrische_Funktion" title="Symmetrische Funktion">Symmetrie</a> der Wellenfunktion bei Vertauschung), für Fermionen aber immer der zweite (<a href="Antisymmetrische_Funktion" title="Antisymmetrische Funktion">Antisymmetrie</a> der Wellenfunktion bei Vertauschung). Unmittelbare Folge der Antisymmetrie ist das <a href="Pauli-Prinzip" title="Pauli-Prinzip">Pauli-Prinzip</a>, nach dem es kein System geben kann, das zwei gleiche Fermionen im selben Einteilchenzustand enthält. Dieses Prinzip bestimmt z. B. den Aufbau der <a href="Atomh%C3%BClle" title="Atomhülle">Atomhülle</a> und zählt damit zu den Grundlagen für die physikalische Erklärung der Eigenschaften der makroskopischen <a href="Materie_(Physik)" title="Materie (Physik)">Materie</a> (z. B. beim chemischen Verhalten der Elemente im <a href="Periodensystem" title="Periodensystem">Periodensystem</a> sowie bei der (näherungsweisen) <a href="Inkompressibilit%C3%A4t" title="Inkompressibilität">Inkompressibilität</a> von Flüssigkeiten und festen Körpern). Die Tatsache, dass es zwei verschiedene Vertauschungssymmetrien gibt, erklärt die großen Unterschiede zwischen Vielteilchensystemen aus Fermionen bzw. Bosonen. Beispiele sind das <a href="Elektronengas" title="Elektronengas">Elektronengas</a> im Metall (Fermionen) bzw. die Photonen in der <a href="Hohlraumstrahlung" class="mw-redirect" title="Hohlraumstrahlung">Hohlraumstrahlung</a> (Bosonen), aber auch die gesamte <a href="Astrophysik" title="Astrophysik">Astrophysik</a>. In der Behandlung mit <a href="Quantenstatistik" title="Quantenstatistik">statistischen Methoden</a> befolgen Fermionen die <a href="Fermi-Dirac-Statistik" title="Fermi-Dirac-Statistik">Fermi-Dirac-Statistik</a>, Bosonen die <a href="Bose-Einstein-Statistik" title="Bose-Einstein-Statistik">Bose-Einstein-Statistik</a>. Eine tiefliegende Begründung für diesen Zusammenhang liefert das <a href="Spin-Statistik-Theorem" title="Spin-Statistik-Theorem">Spin-Statistik-Theorem</a>. Obwohl die von den Spins ausgehenden Kräfte meist vernachlässigbar sind (magnetische Dipol-Wechselwirkung) und in der theoretischen Beschreibung in der Regel ganz vernachlässigt werden, zeigt somit die bloße Eigenschaft der Teilchen, einen halb- bzw. ganzzahligen Spin zu besitzen, weitreichende Folgen in der makroskopisch erfahrbaren Welt.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spinoperator_und_Basiszustände_für_Spin_½"><span id="Spinoperator_und_Basiszust.C3.A4nde_f.C3.BCr_Spin_.C2.BD"></span>Spinoperator und Basiszustände für Spin ½</h2></div>
<p>Der Spinoperator <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}=({\hat {s}}_{x},\,{\hat {s}}_{y},\,{\hat {s}}_{z})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>y</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}=({\hat {s}}_{x},\,{\hat {s}}_{y},\,{\hat {s}}_{z})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/033cb822468a352825dce3a7e2280fee64f414b4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:16.105ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}=({\hat {s}}_{x},\,{\hat {s}}_{y},\,{\hat {s}}_{z})}" loading="lazy"></span> hat drei Komponenten, die für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s={\tfrac {1}{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>s</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s={\tfrac {1}{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/84a26f0e8aa20951fc075d0b792ff220d4326802.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:5.847ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s={\tfrac {1}{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span> jede für sich genau zwei Eigenwerte <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \pm {\tfrac {\hbar }{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \pm {\tfrac {\hbar }{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/24a8336a8c79547059a00daae52812659981717c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:3.568ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \pm {\tfrac {\hbar }{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span> besitzen. Da die drei Komponenten dieselben Vertauschungsrelationen wie bei jedem <a href="Drehimpulsoperator" class="mw-redirect" title="Drehimpulsoperator">Drehimpulsoperator</a> erfüllen, existieren aber keine gemeinsamen Eigenzustände. Wählt man (wie üblich) die Ausrichtung längs der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Achse, dann werden die beiden Eigenzustände zu <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{z}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{z}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7ca5248c15cbf544000a9cb9452ef0f571ed9fe3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.293ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{z}}" loading="lazy"></span> mit den Quantenzahlen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{s}=\pm {\tfrac {1}{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>s</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{s}=\pm {\tfrac {1}{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e6bbed7f7b212caf8dcf5cbc6ca8aa4b7e52de0e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:9.608ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{s}=\pm {\tfrac {1}{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span> als „parallel“ bzw. „antiparallel“ zur <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Achse bezeichnet. <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{x}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{x}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/79c366bcbc71db7fe8ae3b30830c2ad884b1a8cc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.464ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{x}}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{y}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>y</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{y}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/89c5f664ffe4ff5b745d1cf1c69eaa834612f5ad.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:2.341ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{y}}" loading="lazy"></span> haben dann die Erwartungswerte Null.
</p><p>Über die allgemeinen Eigenschaften des quantenmechanischen Drehimpulses hinaus gibt es beim Spin <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/edef8290613648790a8ac1a95c2fb7c3972aea2f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:1.658ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span> zusätzlich besondere Eigenschaften. Sie beruhen darauf, dass <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{z}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{z}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7ca5248c15cbf544000a9cb9452ef0f571ed9fe3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.293ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{z}}" loading="lazy"></span> nur zwei Eigenwerte besitzt. Daher ergibt die doppelte Anwendung des <a href="Aufsteigeoperator" class="mw-redirect" title="Aufsteigeoperator">Auf-</a> oder <a href="Absteigeoperator" class="mw-redirect" title="Absteigeoperator">Absteigeoperators</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{\pm }={\hat {s}}_{x}\pm i{\hat {s}}_{y}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<mi>i</mi>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>y</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{\pm }={\hat {s}}_{x}\pm i{\hat {s}}_{y}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3d08da2a555c0ba3df2801566d088cde05001bf0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:14.349ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{\pm }={\hat {s}}_{x}\pm i{\hat {s}}_{y}}" loading="lazy"></span> stets Null: <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{\pm }^{2}=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{\pm }^{2}=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/719b0a3d1889dde14421dd8383242bc85ad17a85.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.063ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{\pm }^{2}=0}" loading="lazy"></span>.
</p><p>Zur Vereinfachung der Formeln wurden von Wolfgang Pauli<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> durch
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{i}={\tfrac {\hbar }{2}}{\hat {\sigma }}_{i}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>σ<!-- σ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{i}={\tfrac {\hbar }{2}}{\hat {\sigma }}_{i}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/dd945c3783d5c608f45a78d09a039fd2a980ed30.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:9.079ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{i}={\tfrac {\hbar }{2}}{\hat {\sigma }}_{i}}" loading="lazy"></span> (für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i=x,\,y,\,z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>i</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i=x,\,y,\,z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9e34f66f0fbd2489f5236f4a2b2e9d8ec9e0544b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:10.316ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i=x,\,y,\,z}" loading="lazy"></span>)</dd></dl>
<p>die drei <a href="Pauli-Matrizen" title="Pauli-Matrizen">Paulischen Spinoperatoren</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sigma _{x},\sigma _{y},\sigma _{z}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>σ<!-- σ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>σ<!-- σ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>y</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>σ<!-- σ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sigma _{x},\sigma _{y},\sigma _{z}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4dd4e3c33f292dac57e8aefab903caace2eeebd4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:9.273ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sigma _{x},\sigma _{y},\sigma _{z}}" loading="lazy"></span> eingeführt. Aus <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{\pm }^{2}=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{\pm }^{2}=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/719b0a3d1889dde14421dd8383242bc85ad17a85.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.063ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{\pm }^{2}=0}" loading="lazy"></span> folgt dann (für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i,j=x,y,z;\ \ i\neq j}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>i</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>j</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>;</mo>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mi>i</mi>
<mo>≠<!-- ≠ --></mo>
<mi>j</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i,j=x,y,z;\ \ i\neq j}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0bc582e3b563e5db235819bf79faed59e6bf937e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:18.588ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i,j=x,y,z;\ \ i\neq j}" loading="lazy"></span>)
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{i}^{2}=1\ ,\quad {\hat {\sigma }}_{j}{\hat {\sigma }}_{i}=-{\hat {\sigma }}_{i}{\hat {\sigma }}_{j}\;,\quad ({\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}\cdot {\hat {\vec {p}}})^{2}={\hat {\vec {p}}}\;^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>σ<!-- σ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="1em"></mspace>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>σ<!-- σ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>j</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>σ<!-- σ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>σ<!-- σ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>σ<!-- σ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>j</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="1em"></mspace>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>σ<!-- σ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{i}^{2}=1\ ,\quad {\hat {\sigma }}_{j}{\hat {\sigma }}_{i}=-{\hat {\sigma }}_{i}{\hat {\sigma }}_{j}\;,\quad ({\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}\cdot {\hat {\vec {p}}})^{2}={\hat {\vec {p}}}\;^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9b8ce4ca8db75446f50ea734d7faf24b3bf99603.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:41.617ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{i}^{2}=1\ ,\quad {\hat {\sigma }}_{j}{\hat {\sigma }}_{i}=-{\hat {\sigma }}_{i}{\hat {\sigma }}_{j}\;,\quad ({\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}\cdot {\hat {\vec {p}}})^{2}={\hat {\vec {p}}}\;^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span>.</dd></dl>
<p>Die letzte Gleichung gilt außer für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {p}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {p}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6368b6cc82893a96fc2c85d9f2ac3d5400a5bf22.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.449ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {p}}}}" loading="lazy"></span> auch für jeden anderen Vektoroperator, dessen Komponenten untereinander und mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8dff7e7782a4980184a7ad16887435297c06a64e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.257ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}}" loading="lazy"></span> vertauschbar sind.
</p><p>Die unanschaulichen Folgerungen:
</p>
<ul><li>Wegen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{i}^{2}=1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>σ<!-- σ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{i}^{2}=1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/dca39fc05293095818abf234b4f9dda8cfc58bba.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.645ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}_{i}^{2}=1}" loading="lazy"></span> ist <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{x}^{2}={\hat {s}}_{y}^{2}={\hat {s}}_{z}^{2}=({\tfrac {\hbar }{2}})^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo>=</mo>
<msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>y</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo>=</mo>
<msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{x}^{2}={\hat {s}}_{y}^{2}={\hat {s}}_{z}^{2}=({\tfrac {\hbar }{2}})^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/03a0b3755b8cca54441df61f8eb199e673759f96.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:21.075ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{x}^{2}={\hat {s}}_{y}^{2}={\hat {s}}_{z}^{2}=({\tfrac {\hbar }{2}})^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span>. Das heißt, in jedem denkbaren Zustand hat ein Spin-<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/edef8290613648790a8ac1a95c2fb7c3972aea2f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:1.658ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span>-Teilchen zum Quadrat der Komponente seines Spins in einer beliebigen Richtung einen wohlbestimmten und immer gleichen Wert, den größten, der überhaupt möglich ist. In den beiden Zuständen „(anti-)paralleler“ Ausrichtung zur <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Achse sind dem <a href="Betragsquadrat" title="Betragsquadrat">Betragsquadrat</a> nach die beiden Komponenten senkrecht dazu also zusammen doppelt so groß wie die Komponente längs der Ausrichtungsachse. Ein normaler Vektor mit diesen Eigenschaften liegt nicht parallel zur <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Achse, sondern sogar schon näher an der dazu senkrechten <a href="Xy-Ebene" class="mw-redirect" title="Xy-Ebene">xy-Ebene</a>.</li>
<li>Die Komponente des Vektors <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {p}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {p}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6368b6cc82893a96fc2c85d9f2ac3d5400a5bf22.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.449ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {p}}}}" loading="lazy"></span> in Richtung des Spins hat immer denselben Betrag wie der Vektor selbst.</li></ul>
<p>Die beiden Zustände <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |m_{s}\rangle =\left|\pm {\tfrac {1}{2}}\right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>s</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩<!-- ⟩ --></mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow>
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |m_{s}\rangle =\left|\pm {\tfrac {1}{2}}\right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2d4be4e88f0b9aaf7993600b311c55c8a1d591ee.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:12.904ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |m_{s}\rangle =\left|\pm {\tfrac {1}{2}}\right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> (im Sprachgebrauch „Spin <a href="Parallelit%C3%A4t_(Vektorrechnung)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parallelität (Vektorrechnung)">parallel</a> bzw. <a href="Antiparallelit%C3%A4t_(Vektorrechnung)" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiparallelität (Vektorrechnung)">antiparallel</a> zur <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Achse“, oft
auch mit den anschaulichen Symbolen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|\uparrow \right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">↑<!-- ↑ --></mo>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|\uparrow \right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b63af311377b1ea64952f5b9389a8a8f9d994a32.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.714ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|\uparrow \right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> bzw. <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|\downarrow \right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">↓<!-- ↓ --></mo>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|\downarrow \right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c2925aef9464d9e4f3393dc2a2e0e20dca0a2be4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.714ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|\downarrow \right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> bezeichnet) bilden eine Basis im zweidimensionalen komplexen Zustandsraum <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6f43d6ec8a1e1fe5a85aec0dd9bdcd45ae09b06b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.732ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> für den Spinfreiheitsgrad eines Spin-<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/edef8290613648790a8ac1a95c2fb7c3972aea2f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:1.658ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span>-Teilchens. Auch der Zustand, in dem der Spin parallel zu einer beliebigen anderen Richtung ausgerichtet ist, ist eine Linearkombination dieser beiden Basisvektoren mit gewissen komplexen Koeffizienten. Für den Zustand mit Spin parallel zur <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span>-Achse z. B. haben beide Koeffizienten gleichen Betrag, für den Zustand parallel zur <span style="white-space:nowrap"><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}" loading="lazy"></span>-Achse</span> auch, aber mit anderer komplexer Phase. Auch wenn die Raumrichtungen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}" loading="lazy"></span> zueinander senkrecht stehen, sind die entsprechend ausgerichteten Zustände nicht orthogonal (der einzige zu <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|{+{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
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</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|{+{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5f37209b14a44c5af0974cebd2996669bdf28dbc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:5.211ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|{+{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> orthogonale Zustand <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \in \mathbb {C} ^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>∈<!-- ∈ --></mo>
<msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="double-struck">C</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \in \mathbb {C} ^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f54845e0638c7c0b8d058b778bd488459c110866.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.928ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \in \mathbb {C} ^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> ist <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|{-{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
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<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|{-{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2a406cb0c01f56e531215559e22c303e292e9fa3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:5.211ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|{-{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span>).
</p><p>Anmerkung: Die Matrix-Darstellung der Paulischen Spinoperatoren sind die <a href="Pauli-Matrizen" title="Pauli-Matrizen">Pauli-Matrizen</a>. Mathematisch sind die kleinsten <a href="Darstellung_(Lie-Algebra)" title="Darstellung (Lie-Algebra)">Darstellungen</a> der Spinalgebra die <a href="Spinor" title="Spinor">Spinoren</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spin_½_und_dreidimensionaler_Vektor"><span id="Spin_.C2.BD_und_dreidimensionaler_Vektor"></span>Spin ½ und dreidimensionaler Vektor</h2></div>
<p>Der <a href="Erwartungswert" title="Erwartungswert">Erwartungswert</a> des Drehimpulsvektors <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \langle {\hat {\vec {s}}}\rangle =(\langle {\hat {s}}_{x}\rangle ,\,\langle {\hat {s}}_{y}\rangle ,\,\langle {\hat {s}}_{z}\rangle )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟨<!-- ⟨ --></mo>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
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<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
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<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩<!-- ⟩ --></mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟨<!-- ⟨ --></mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
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</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩<!-- ⟩ --></mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟨<!-- ⟨ --></mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>y</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩<!-- ⟩ --></mo>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟨<!-- ⟨ --></mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩<!-- ⟩ --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \langle {\hat {\vec {s}}}\rangle =(\langle {\hat {s}}_{x}\rangle ,\,\langle {\hat {s}}_{y}\rangle ,\,\langle {\hat {s}}_{z}\rangle )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7eaa5c1509da0d74d6f086343c2cbee81b3c498f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:23.343ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \langle {\hat {\vec {s}}}\rangle =(\langle {\hat {s}}_{x}\rangle ,\,\langle {\hat {s}}_{y}\rangle ,\,\langle {\hat {s}}_{z}\rangle )}" loading="lazy"></span> hat unter allen möglichen Werten der Drehimpulsquantenzahl (0, 1/2, 1, 3/2, …) nur für Spin ½ die zwei Eigenschaften, die man anschaulich mit einem Vektor im dreidimensionalen Raum verbindet: Er hat in jedem möglichen Zustand die immer gleiche Länge <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \vert \langle {\hat {\vec {s}}}\rangle \vert ={\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">|</mo>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟨<!-- ⟨ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩<!-- ⟩ --></mo>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">|</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \vert \langle {\hat {\vec {s}}}\rangle \vert ={\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2de84adb4f6f185b0dd0497d2e26a00351f4a815.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:10.423ex; height:3.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \vert \langle {\hat {\vec {s}}}\rangle \vert ={\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar }" loading="lazy"></span> und immer eine wohlbestimmte Richtung.
</p><p>Denn zu jedem beliebigen Spinzustand <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \vert \chi \rangle =\alpha \left|\uparrow \right\rangle +\beta \left|\downarrow \right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">|</mo>
<mi>χ<!-- χ --></mi>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩<!-- ⟩ --></mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>α<!-- α --></mi>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">↑<!-- ↑ --></mo>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>β<!-- β --></mi>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">↓<!-- ↓ --></mo>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \vert \chi \rangle =\alpha \left|\uparrow \right\rangle +\beta \left|\downarrow \right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/33b4ae326adc0c1173e2b147d8ac0750c791d02d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:17.967ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \vert \chi \rangle =\alpha \left|\uparrow \right\rangle +\beta \left|\downarrow \right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> (normiert mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \vert \alpha \vert ^{2}+\vert \beta \vert ^{2}=1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">|</mo>
<mi>α<!-- α --></mi>
<msup>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">|</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>+</mo>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">|</mo>
<mi>β<!-- β --></mi>
<msup>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">|</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \vert \alpha \vert ^{2}+\vert \beta \vert ^{2}=1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/727589dead44877ce9feded3dba9646044e46666.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.617ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \vert \alpha \vert ^{2}+\vert \beta \vert ^{2}=1}" loading="lazy"></span>) ist
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \vert \langle {\hat {\vec {s}}}\rangle \vert ^{2}=\langle \chi \vert {\hat {s}}_{x}\vert \chi \rangle ^{2}+\langle \chi \vert {\hat {s}}_{y}\vert \chi \rangle ^{2}+\langle \chi \vert {\hat {s}}_{z}\vert \chi \rangle ^{2}={\tfrac {1}{4}}\hbar ^{2}(\vert \alpha \vert ^{2}+\vert \beta \vert ^{2})^{2}\equiv ({\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar )^{2}\ .}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">|</mo>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟨<!-- ⟨ --></mo>
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<mn>2</mn>
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<mo>+</mo>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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</mrow>
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<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">|</mo>
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<mn>2</mn>
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<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟨<!-- ⟨ --></mo>
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</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \vert \langle {\hat {\vec {s}}}\rangle \vert ^{2}=\langle \chi \vert {\hat {s}}_{x}\vert \chi \rangle ^{2}+\langle \chi \vert {\hat {s}}_{y}\vert \chi \rangle ^{2}+\langle \chi \vert {\hat {s}}_{z}\vert \chi \rangle ^{2}={\tfrac {1}{4}}\hbar ^{2}(\vert \alpha \vert ^{2}+\vert \beta \vert ^{2})^{2}\equiv ({\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar )^{2}\ .}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7f2b143bb586bbf1b44f83994c58aebe80dd98f0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:73.001ex; height:3.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \vert \langle {\hat {\vec {s}}}\rangle \vert ^{2}=\langle \chi \vert {\hat {s}}_{x}\vert \chi \rangle ^{2}+\langle \chi \vert {\hat {s}}_{y}\vert \chi \rangle ^{2}+\langle \chi \vert {\hat {s}}_{z}\vert \chi \rangle ^{2}={\tfrac {1}{4}}\hbar ^{2}(\vert \alpha \vert ^{2}+\vert \beta \vert ^{2})^{2}\equiv ({\tfrac {1}{2}}\hbar )^{2}\ .}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Weiter gilt, dass es zu jedem beliebigen Spinzustand (also zu jeder beliebigen Linearkombination von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|{+{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|{+{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5f37209b14a44c5af0974cebd2996669bdf28dbc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:5.211ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|{+{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|{-{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|{-{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2a406cb0c01f56e531215559e22c303e292e9fa3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:5.211ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|{-{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span>) genau eine Richtung im dreidimensionalen Raum gibt, zu der der Spin dann so parallel liegt wie im Zustand <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|{+{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|{+{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5f37209b14a44c5af0974cebd2996669bdf28dbc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:5.211ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|{+{\tfrac {1}{2}}}\right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> zur <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Achse. Für die Linearkombination <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left\vert \chi \right\rangle =\alpha \left|\uparrow \right\rangle +\beta \left|\downarrow \right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mi>χ<!-- χ --></mi>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>α<!-- α --></mi>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">↑<!-- ↑ --></mo>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>β<!-- β --></mi>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">↓<!-- ↓ --></mo>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left\vert \chi \right\rangle =\alpha \left|\uparrow \right\rangle +\beta \left|\downarrow \right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d51de0f20cd0925460ee9159bef6d14f80cfc4c0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:17.967ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left\vert \chi \right\rangle =\alpha \left|\uparrow \right\rangle +\beta \left|\downarrow \right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> sind Polarwinkel <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \theta }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \theta }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6e5ab2664b422d53eb0c7df3b87e1360d75ad9af.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \theta }" loading="lazy"></span> und Azimuthwinkel <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \phi }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \phi }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/72b1f30316670aee6270a28334bdf4f5072cdde4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.385ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \phi }" loading="lazy"></span> der Orientierungsrichtung aus der Gleichung <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {\alpha }{\beta }}={\tfrac {\cos(\theta /2)}{\exp {(i\phi )\,\sin(\theta /2)}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mi>α<!-- α --></mi>
<mi>β<!-- β --></mi>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mi>exp</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo><!-- --></mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>θ<!-- θ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mn>2</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {\alpha }{\beta }}={\tfrac {\cos(\theta /2)}{\exp {(i\phi )\,\sin(\theta /2)}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/87e5c9d2713b4008e769c2a54e7ff5ff039cb758.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:18.036ex; height:4.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {\alpha }{\beta }}={\tfrac {\cos(\theta /2)}{\exp {(i\phi )\,\sin(\theta /2)}}}}" loading="lazy"></span> zu entnehmen.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Das entspricht der Vorstellung von einem normalen Vektor im dreidimensionalen Raum, den man ja auch immer zur Definition der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Achse benutzen kann.
</p><p>Beides gilt unter allen quantenmechanisch möglichen Drehimpulsen nur für die Quantenzahl <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s={\tfrac {1}{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>s</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s={\tfrac {1}{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/84a26f0e8aa20951fc075d0b792ff220d4326802.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:5.847ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s={\tfrac {1}{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span>. Insofern kommt unter allen quantenmechanischen Drehimpulsen der Spin <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/edef8290613648790a8ac1a95c2fb7c3972aea2f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:1.658ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span> der Vorstellung von einem Vektor am nächsten. Der <a href="Vektoroperator" title="Vektoroperator">Vektoroperator</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}=({\hat {s}}_{x},\,{\hat {s}}_{y},\,{\hat {s}}_{z})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>y</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}=({\hat {s}}_{x},\,{\hat {s}}_{y},\,{\hat {s}}_{z})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/033cb822468a352825dce3a7e2280fee64f414b4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:16.105ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}=({\hat {s}}_{x},\,{\hat {s}}_{y},\,{\hat {s}}_{z})}" loading="lazy"></span> hingegen hat einige höchst ungewöhnliche Eigenschaften (s. vorigen Abschnitt).
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spin_½_als_Äquivalent_aller_2-Zustands-Systeme"><span id="Spin_.C2.BD_als_.C3.84quivalent_aller_2-Zustands-Systeme"></span>Spin ½ als Äquivalent aller 2-Zustands-Systeme</h2></div>
<p>Hat ein <a href="Physikalisches_System" title="Physikalisches System">physikalisches System</a> nur zwei Basiszustände (zumindest in näherungsweiser Betrachtung, z. B. bei zwei benachbarten Energieniveaus, während die Existenz von anderen, weiter entfernten, vernachlässigt wird), ist es formal ein genaues Abbild des 2-Zustands-Systems für den Spin <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/edef8290613648790a8ac1a95c2fb7c3972aea2f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:1.658ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span>. Für dieses System können ohne Rücksicht auf ihre physikalische Bedeutung drei Operatoren definiert werden: Ein <a href="Aufsteigeoperator" class="mw-redirect" title="Aufsteigeoperator">Aufsteigeoperator</a> und ein <a href="Absteigeoperator" class="mw-redirect" title="Absteigeoperator">Absteigeoperator</a> verwandelt den zweiten Basiszustand in den ersten bzw. umgekehrt, und ergibt sonst Null. Der dritte Operator gibt dem ersten Basiszustand den Eigenwert <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle +{\tfrac {1}{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle +{\tfrac {1}{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7588217aab824f29bbd55e94f999fe5e700e2fe1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:3.466ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle +{\tfrac {1}{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span> und dem zweiten <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -{\tfrac {1}{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -{\tfrac {1}{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b0f99130274f09ef6b857419bf5c2529a6423597.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:3.466ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -{\tfrac {1}{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span>. Nennt man diese Operatoren der Reihe nach <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{+},\,{\hat {s}}_{-},{\hat {s}}_{z}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>+</mo>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{+},\,{\hat {s}}_{-},{\hat {s}}_{z}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/cc7015d49d4098e583b16dfa8a24a7f58dea2d32.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:10.353ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {s}}_{+},\,{\hat {s}}_{-},{\hat {s}}_{z}}" loading="lazy"></span>, erfüllen sie dieselben Gleichungen wie die <a href="#Spinoperator_und_Basiszustände_für_Spin_½">gleichnamigen Operatoren</a> für den Spin <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mn>2</mn>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/edef8290613648790a8ac1a95c2fb7c3972aea2f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:1.658ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span>. Sie können auch in den Vektoroperator <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}=({\hat {s}}_{x},\,{\hat {s}}_{y},{\hat {s}}_{z})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>x</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>y</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">^<!-- ^ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>z</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}=({\hat {s}}_{x},\,{\hat {s}}_{y},{\hat {s}}_{z})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a625928a7b6dd6bb42d588e16004d1cb50c8954a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:15.718ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}=({\hat {s}}_{x},\,{\hat {s}}_{y},{\hat {s}}_{z})}" loading="lazy"></span> umgeschrieben werden, der wie jeder <a href="Drehimpulsoperator#Erzeugende_einer_Drehung" class="mw-redirect" title="Drehimpulsoperator">Drehimpulsoperator</a> aufgrund seiner Vertauschungsrelationen die infinitesimalen Drehungen in einem (abstrakten) dreidimensionalen Raum beschreibt.
</p><p>Mathematischer Hintergrund dieser Äquivalenz ist die Tatsache, dass die Basistransformationen im zweidimensionalen <a href="Komplexe_Zahl" title="Komplexe Zahl">komplexen</a> <a href="Hilbertraum" title="Hilbertraum">Hilbertraum</a> eine Darstellung der Gruppe <a href="SU(2)" title="SU(2)">SU(2)</a> bilden, die „doppelt so groß ist“<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>Anm. 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wie die Gruppe <a href="SO(3)" class="mw-redirect" title="SO(3)">SO(3)</a> der <a href="Drehgruppe" title="Drehgruppe">Drehungen</a> im <a href="Reell" class="mw-redirect" title="Reell">reellen</a> dreidimensionalen Raum. Der Unterschied zu den „normalen“ Drehungen im dreidimensionalen Raum liegt darin, dass die vom Spinoperator erzeugte Drehung mit dem Drehwinkel 360° nicht durch die <a href="Einheitsmatrix" title="Einheitsmatrix">Einheitsmatrix</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mathbf {1} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn mathvariant="bold">1</mn>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathbf {1} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/235ffc0f1788b720aef5caa7b97246a84421fd0e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.337ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathbf {1} }" loading="lazy"></span> wiedergegeben wird, sondern durch <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -\mathbf {1} }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn mathvariant="bold">1</mn>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -\mathbf {1} }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0f605dcbe97bf3eccf267c8c8d291b279da31aef.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:3.145ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -\mathbf {1} }" loading="lazy"></span>. Dabei geht der physikalische Zustand zwar in sich selber über, der Zustands<i>vektor</i> aber in sein Negatives. Das eine ist mit dem anderen verträglich, weil Zustandsvektoren, die sich nur um einen komplexen Faktor unterscheiden, <i>denselben Zustand</i> beschreiben.<sup id="cite_ref-Krey_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krey-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Erst eine 720°-Drehung bringt wieder denselben Zustandsvektor hervor.
</p><p>Nimmt man für die zwei Basiszustände verschiedene Elementarteilchen, etwa <a href="Proton" title="Proton">Proton</a> und <a href="Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a>, oder <a href="Elektron" title="Elektron">Elektron</a> und <a href="Neutrino" title="Neutrino">Elektronneutrino</a>, wird die durch dieses Vorgehen definierte physikalische Größe als <a href="Isospin" title="Isospin">Isospin</a> des Teilchens bezeichnet. Dies bewährt sich auch für Mehrteilchensysteme, d. h. ihre Zustände lassen sich danach klassifizieren, wie die Isospins ihrer einzelnen Teilchen sich zum Gesamtisospin addieren, wobei die <a href="Drehimpulsoperator#Addition_von_Drehimpulsen" class="mw-redirect" title="Drehimpulsoperator">Regeln der Addition</a> von quantenmechanischen Drehimpulsen volle Gültigkeit haben. In der Entwicklung der <a href="Elementarteilchenphysik" class="mw-redirect" title="Elementarteilchenphysik">Elementarteilchenphysik</a> hat dieses Isospinkonzept eine bedeutende Rolle gespielt.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Zwei_Teilchen_mit_Spin_½"><span id="Zwei_Teilchen_mit_Spin_.C2.BD"></span>Zwei Teilchen mit Spin ½</h2></div>
<p>Der Gesamtspin kann hier die Werte <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,S=1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>S</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,S=1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/baaf31c29755136fe1ab7ddabe3dc74ee23ecc0c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.147ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,S=1}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,S=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>S</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,S=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/78ad70b41c0677180851f81d98d3ceab1e9280a3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.147ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,S=0}" loading="lazy"></span> haben. Mit der Bezeichnung <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|\uparrow \right\rangle \ ,\left|\downarrow \right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">↑<!-- ↑ --></mo>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mo>,</mo>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">↓<!-- ↓ --></mo>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|\uparrow \right\rangle \ ,\left|\downarrow \right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/708bbfa9f4c33db73ee73af83f89e667014af664.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.43ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|\uparrow \right\rangle \ ,\left|\downarrow \right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> für die Basiszustände jedes der Teilchen werden die Zweiteilchenzustände mit den Quantenzahlen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>S</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M_{S}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>M</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>S</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M_{S}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7fdc66710bc55a9c0a86222a8f43f12685f8c698.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.546ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M_{S}}" loading="lazy"></span> so gebildet:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \{\,\left|{\uparrow \uparrow }\right\rangle \ ,\ {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}(\left|{\uparrow \downarrow }\right\rangle +\left|{\downarrow \uparrow }\right\rangle )\ ,\ \left|{\downarrow \downarrow }\right\rangle \,\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">{</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">↑<!-- ↑ -->↑<!-- ↑ --></mo>
</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mo>,</mo>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<msqrt>
<mn>2</mn>
</msqrt>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">↑<!-- ↑ -->↓<!-- ↓ --></mo>
</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">↓<!-- ↓ -->↑<!-- ↑ --></mo>
</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mo>,</mo>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">↓<!-- ↓ -->↓<!-- ↓ --></mo>
</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">}</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \{\,\left|{\uparrow \uparrow }\right\rangle \ ,\ {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}(\left|{\uparrow \downarrow }\right\rangle +\left|{\downarrow \uparrow }\right\rangle )\ ,\ \left|{\downarrow \downarrow }\right\rangle \,\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5371ed976d662fd1dfabf2261763ea23f019bec9.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:31.446ex; height:4.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \{\,\left|{\uparrow \uparrow }\right\rangle \ ,\ {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}(\left|{\uparrow \downarrow }\right\rangle +\left|{\downarrow \uparrow }\right\rangle )\ ,\ \left|{\downarrow \downarrow }\right\rangle \,\}}" loading="lazy"></span> für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,S=1\;,\ M_{S}=+1,\,0,\,-1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>S</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>,</mo>
<mtext> </mtext>
<msub>
<mi>M</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>S</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,S=1\;,\ M_{S}=+1,\,0,\,-1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/39ad2163dd2b6835f188333c091e83fdf4451e5b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:24.998ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,S=1\;,\ M_{S}=+1,\,0,\,-1}" loading="lazy"></span> (<a href="Multiplizit%C3%A4t" title="Multiplizität">Triplett</a>)</dd></dl>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}(\left|\uparrow \downarrow \right\rangle -\left|\downarrow \uparrow \right\rangle )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<msqrt>
<mn>2</mn>
</msqrt>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">↑<!-- ↑ -->↓<!-- ↓ --></mo>
</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">↓<!-- ↓ -->↑<!-- ↑ --></mo>
</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}(\left|\uparrow \downarrow \right\rangle -\left|\downarrow \uparrow \right\rangle )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/975bad42bec3fbecc10fab6945865a3804d3ed13.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:15.429ex; height:4.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}(\left|\uparrow \downarrow \right\rangle -\left|\downarrow \uparrow \right\rangle )}" loading="lazy"></span> für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \,S=0,\;M_{S}=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mi>S</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<msub>
<mi>M</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>S</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \,S=0,\;M_{S}=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3f2d06e431bc2b966aededb43202e59b66446e69.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:15.634ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \,S=0,\;M_{S}=0}" loading="lazy"></span> (<a href="Singulett" class="mw-redirect" title="Singulett">Singulett</a>)</dd></dl>
<p>Die beiden Fälle zu <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle M_{S}=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>M</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>S</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle M_{S}=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4268620a235565b484283f6c30d8535f08828a7d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.807ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle M_{S}=0}" loading="lazy"></span> (d. h. die <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Komponente des Gesamtspins ist Null) sind die einfachsten Beispiele für einen <a href="Verschr%C3%A4nkter_Zustand" class="mw-redirect" title="Verschränkter Zustand">verschränkten Zustand</a> aus jeweils zwei Summanden. Hier ergeben schon in jedem einzelnen der beiden Summanden <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|\uparrow \downarrow \right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">↑<!-- ↑ -->↓<!-- ↓ --></mo>
</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|\uparrow \downarrow \right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f34e846e4271aaec795ca905b87c0e54edbbcb70.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.876ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|\uparrow \downarrow \right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|\downarrow \uparrow \right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">↓<!-- ↓ -->↑<!-- ↑ --></mo>
</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|\downarrow \uparrow \right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f3231f8bf4d0fb716a7d8391fca7ceef322b4e81.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.876ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|\downarrow \uparrow \right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> die <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Komponenten der beiden einzelnen Spins zusammen Null. Dies gilt nicht mehr, wenn man statt der (gleich großen) Spins andere Vektoroperatoren betrachtet, die für die beiden Teilchen unterschiedliche Größe haben. Z. B. unterscheiden sich die magnetischen Momente von Elektron und Proton im H-Atom um einen Faktor ca. 700. Wenn für das Elektron mit seinem großen magnetischen Moment zur Verdeutlichung <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|\Uparrow \right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">⇑<!-- ⇑ --></mo>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|\Uparrow \right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b5b5bd748bbdc5bb8760595d96cb0e827d44e356.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.972ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|\Uparrow \right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> bzw. <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|\Downarrow \right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">⇓<!-- ⇓ --></mo>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|\Downarrow \right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/72d5d6fd44c81af24cce4f8e591989cee2e401ab.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.972ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|\Downarrow \right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> geschrieben wird, heißen die beiden <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (M_{S}=0)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>M</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>S</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (M_{S}=0)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/752969c3aae7a61f9f1bdfe2505b435a14eb0866.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.617ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (M_{S}=0)}" loading="lazy"></span>-Zustände <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}(\left|\Uparrow \downarrow \right\rangle \pm \left|\Downarrow \uparrow \right\rangle )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<msqrt>
<mn>2</mn>
</msqrt>
</mfrac>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">⇑<!-- ⇑ -->↓<!-- ↓ --></mo>
</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>±<!-- ± --></mo>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">⇓<!-- ⇓ -->↑<!-- ↑ --></mo>
</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}(\left|\Uparrow \downarrow \right\rangle \pm \left|\Downarrow \uparrow \right\rangle )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1927535a0eddf4287b7c2fb5fb776498f023ed73.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:15.945ex; height:4.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}(\left|\Uparrow \downarrow \right\rangle \pm \left|\Downarrow \uparrow \right\rangle )}" loading="lazy"></span>. Während jeder einzelne der Summanden hier ein magnetisches Moment fast von der Größe wie beim Elektron zeigt, ausgerichtet in (<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle +z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle +z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d128a5e034d5136437e671ed08b7188cead3f33f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:2.896ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle +z}" loading="lazy"></span>)-Richtung bzw. in (<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle -z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle -z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/78c4571a4a3ceb7e7e55712372835ebe65d20f3e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:2.896ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle -z}" loading="lazy"></span>)-Richtung, hat das gesamte magnetische Moment des Atoms in einem solchen verschränkten Zustand die <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Komponente Null. Daran ist zu sehen, dass <i>beide</i> Summanden <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|\Uparrow \downarrow \right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">⇑<!-- ⇑ -->↓<!-- ↓ --></mo>
</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|\Uparrow \downarrow \right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1e47d8518b8f1647a6ae6bccaab5b3b5e130ce2c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.134ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|\Uparrow \downarrow \right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|\Downarrow \uparrow \right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">⇓<!-- ⇓ -->↑<!-- ↑ --></mo>
</mrow>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|\Downarrow \uparrow \right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e9d3910e8f07b3de2a5989f436cba21de6779668.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.134ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|\Downarrow \uparrow \right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> gleichzeitig präsent sein müssen, damit sich dies ergeben kann.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Zwei_gleiche_Teilchen_mit_Spin_½"><span id="Zwei_gleiche_Teilchen_mit_Spin_.C2.BD"></span>Zwei gleiche Teilchen mit Spin ½</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vertauschungssymmetrie_in_Spin-_und_Orts-Koordinaten">Vertauschungssymmetrie in Spin- und Orts-Koordinaten</h3></div>
<p>Der Triplettzustand ist symmetrisch, der Singulettzustand antisymmetrisch hinsichtlich der Spins, denn die Vertauschung der zwei Teilchen bedeutet hier, die beiden Pfeile für ihren Spinzustand in den obigen Formeln in umgekehrter Reihenfolge zu schreiben. Da der <i>vollständige</i> Zustandsvektor zweier gleicher Fermionen bei der Vertauschung <i>aller</i> ihrer Koordinaten das Vorzeichen wechselt, muss der neben dem Spinanteil existierende ortsabhängige Teil <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle |\psi ({\vec {r}}_{1},{\vec {r}}_{2})\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">|</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>r</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo fence="false" stretchy="false">⟩<!-- ⟩ --></mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle |\psi ({\vec {r}}_{1},{\vec {r}}_{2})\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/202336f1af5549e4f630fdd5a9b7b522bc336317.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.463ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle |\psi ({\vec {r}}_{1},{\vec {r}}_{2})\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> auch eine definierte Symmetrie haben, antisymmetrisch im Triplett, symmetrisch im Singulett. Bei Vertauschung der räumlichen Koordinaten werden die Ladungsverteilungen beider Elektronen einfach ausgetauscht, bleiben der Form nach aber exakt dieselben wie vorher. Dennoch ergeben sich, wenn sich die Ladungsverteilungen überlappen, für die elektrostatische Abstoßungsenergie zwei verschiedene Werte: Im antisymmetrisch verschränkten Ortszustand ist der Energiebetrag kleiner als im symmetrischen, weil die Aufenthaltswahrscheinlichkeit beider Elektronen am gleichen Ort im antisymmetrischen Ortszustand sicher Null ist, im symmetrischen nicht (im Überlappbereich). Dieser rein quantenmechanische Effekt wird <a href="Austauschwechselwirkung" title="Austauschwechselwirkung">Austauschwechselwirkung</a> genannt. Er begründet den starken Einfluss des Gesamtspins der Elektronen auf die Energieniveaus ihres Atoms, obwohl von den Spins selbst überhaupt keine elektrostatische und nur geringfügige magnetische Wechselwirkung ausgeht.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Der_kugelsymmetrische_Singulett-Zustand">Der kugelsymmetrische Singulett-Zustand</h3></div>
<p>Bildet man den Zustandsvektor für den Singulettzustand nicht mit den in <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>-Richtung ausgerichteten Spinzuständen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|\uparrow \right\rangle \ ,\left|\downarrow \right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">↑<!-- ↑ --></mo>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mo>,</mo>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">↓<!-- ↓ --></mo>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|\uparrow \right\rangle \ ,\left|\downarrow \right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/708bbfa9f4c33db73ee73af83f89e667014af664.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.43ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|\uparrow \right\rangle \ ,\left|\downarrow \right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> sondern mit den in <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span>-Richtung ausgerichteten <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|\leftarrow \right\rangle \ ,\left|\rightarrow \right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">←<!-- ← --></mo>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
<mtext> </mtext>
<mo>,</mo>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
<mo>⟩</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|\leftarrow \right\rangle \ ,\left|\rightarrow \right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/76b008985bf2ed218d460c8649aa9e340853d6c0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.752ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|\leftarrow \right\rangle \ ,\left|\rightarrow \right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span>, so ist der Zustand trotzdem ein und derselbe (denn es gibt ja nur einen):
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}\;(\,\left|\uparrow \downarrow \right\rangle -\left|\downarrow \uparrow \right\rangle \,)\quad \equiv \quad {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}\;(\,\left|\leftarrow \,\rightarrow \right\rangle -\left|\rightarrow \,\leftarrow \right\rangle \,)\cdot }">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}\;(\,\left|\uparrow \downarrow \right\rangle -\left|\downarrow \uparrow \right\rangle \,)\quad \equiv \quad {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}\;(\,\left|\leftarrow \,\rightarrow \right\rangle -\left|\rightarrow \,\leftarrow \right\rangle \,)\cdot }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b577131c00c33944940973319ff05de2b1fcd86c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:47.508ex; height:4.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}\;(\,\left|\uparrow \downarrow \right\rangle -\left|\downarrow \uparrow \right\rangle \,)\quad \equiv \quad {\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}\;(\,\left|\leftarrow \,\rightarrow \right\rangle -\left|\rightarrow \,\leftarrow \right\rangle \,)\cdot }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Formal ist das eine Folge von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|{\rightarrow }\right\rangle ={\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}(\,\left|{\uparrow }\right\rangle +\left|{\downarrow }\right\rangle \,)}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|{\rightarrow }\right\rangle ={\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}(\,\left|{\uparrow }\right\rangle +\left|{\downarrow }\right\rangle \,)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1bf39f93dae20017eb0f8ecc2cb7096c1c34b8ec.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:20.852ex; height:4.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|{\rightarrow }\right\rangle ={\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}(\,\left|{\uparrow }\right\rangle +\left|{\downarrow }\right\rangle \,)}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|{\leftarrow }\right\rangle ={\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}(\,\left|{\uparrow }\right\rangle -\left|{\downarrow }\right\rangle \,)}">
<semantics>
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<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|{\leftarrow }\right\rangle ={\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}(\,\left|{\uparrow }\right\rangle -\left|{\downarrow }\right\rangle \,)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3598ff4ea453ae9f191cc57d2cab17c10151f076.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:20.852ex; height:4.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|{\leftarrow }\right\rangle ={\tfrac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}(\,\left|{\uparrow }\right\rangle -\left|{\downarrow }\right\rangle \,)}" loading="lazy"></span>.
</p><p>Hierzu gibt es ein Gedankenexperiment, das die Schwierigkeiten der Anschauung beim Verstehen der Superposition unteilbarer Teilchen beleuchtet:<sup id="cite_ref-Krey_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krey-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<ol><li>In einem He<sup>+</sup>-Ion mit dem einen 1s-Elektron im Zustand <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|{\leftarrow }\right\rangle }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|{\leftarrow }\right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/17f3124962bf846581f38e5c3a4a9725df2bb769.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.875ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|{\leftarrow }\right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> wird die Ausbeute gemessen, mit der ein Elektron im Zustand <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|{\uparrow }\right\rangle }">
<semantics>
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<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
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<mo>|</mo>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|{\uparrow }\right\rangle }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8e4e98e9dbe00eb5882a773e43acd59e3768f7fe.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.714ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|{\uparrow }\right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span> extrahiert werden kann. Antwort: 50 %.</li>
<li>Das He<sup>+</sup>-Ion fängt nun ein zweites Elektron in den 1s-Zustand ein. Wegen gleicher Ortswellenfunktionen beider Elektronen ist der Zustand hinsichtlich des Orts symmetrisch, hinsichtlich des Spins antisymmetrisch. Das neue Elektron stellt seinen Spin nicht einfach nur entgegengesetzt zum vorhandenen (<span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|{\leftarrow \,\rightarrow }\right\rangle }">
<semantics>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \left|{\leftarrow \,\rightarrow }\right\rangle }</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1960d2a5189107c78ae79ea02a8a3251ac28ad24.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.586ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|{\leftarrow \,\rightarrow }\right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span>), sondern es bildet sich automatisch die richtige Verschränkung für das Singulett (lt. Formel oben). Dieser Singulettzustand ist (obwohl der Vektor anders aussieht) derselbe, der sich aus zwei Elektronen in den Zuständen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|\uparrow \right\rangle ,\left|\downarrow \right\rangle }">
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<li>Infolgedessen zeigt nun (d. h. nach Schritt 2.) die gleiche Messung wie in Nr. 1 (Extraktion von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \left|{\uparrow }\right\rangle }">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8e4e98e9dbe00eb5882a773e43acd59e3768f7fe.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:2.714ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \left|{\uparrow }\right\rangle }" loading="lazy"></span>) eine Ausbeute von 100 %. Dieser scheinbare Widerspruch „per se“ ist mit der an makroskopischen Verhältnissen geschulten Anschauung nur verträglich, wenn beide Elektronen sich „aufgeteilt“ und mit den jeweils richtigen Hälften über Kreuz neu zusammengefügt haben könnten.</li></ol>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spin_und_Diracgleichung,_anomales_magnetisches_Moment"><span id="Spin_und_Diracgleichung.2C_anomales_magnetisches_Moment"></span>Spin und Diracgleichung, anomales magnetisches Moment</h2></div>
<p>Die theoretische Begründung des Spins <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/edef8290613648790a8ac1a95c2fb7c3972aea2f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:1.658ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}}" loading="lazy"></span> beruht auf der 1928 von <a href="Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> entdeckten <a href="Diracgleichung" class="mw-redirect" title="Diracgleichung">Diracgleichung</a>, die als relativistisch korrekte Wellengleichung an die Stelle der nichtrelativistischen Schrödingergleichung tritt<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>. Eine Bedingung für <a href="Relativit%C3%A4tsprinzip#Spezielles_Relativitätsprinzip" title="Relativitätsprinzip">relativistische Invarianz</a> der zugehörigen Gleichung für die Energie ist, dass Energie <i>und</i> Impuls linear darin vorkommen. Das ist bei der Schrödingergleichung nicht der Fall, denn sie beruht nach der klassischen Mechanik auf <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E={\tfrac {p^{2}}{2m}}}">
<semantics>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f18bf53dfec0b932ebc4d5ab69d3c02ebd3a2416.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:7.975ex; height:4.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E={\tfrac {p^{2}}{2m}}}" loading="lazy"></span>, in Operatoren: <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}={\tfrac {{\hat {p}}^{2}}{2m}}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}={\tfrac {{\hat {p}}^{2}}{2m}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/955e3d45d2e8013afff1d4d0cb37927ece6f0d42.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:8.263ex; height:4.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}={\tfrac {{\hat {p}}^{2}}{2m}}}" loading="lazy"></span> . Dirac <a href="#Spin_½_und_dreidimensionaler_Vektor">fand in</a>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}\cdot {\hat {\vec {p}}}={\hat {|{\vec {p}}|}}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}\cdot {\hat {\vec {p}}}={\hat {|{\vec {p}}|}}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e7cd1aad5cc64764e958c5a2035d3a538c9e498d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.085ex; height:3.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}\cdot {\hat {\vec {p}}}={\hat {|{\vec {p}}|}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>den gesuchten linearen Operator für den Betrag des Impulses. In der weiteren Ausformulierung dieses Ansatzes mussten die Paulischen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 2{\times }2}">
<semantics>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 2{\times }2}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a33e1195ea0e5f3719c961403ba9452f7b4a1445.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.133ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 2{\times }2}" loading="lazy"></span>-Matrizen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}}">
<semantics>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/94eaac6b04f90930c71f89e3cc4a31d62def2ab4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}}" loading="lazy"></span> gemäß
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {\alpha }}}={\begin{pmatrix}0&{\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}\\{\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}&0\end{pmatrix}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mo>=</mo>
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<mo>(</mo>
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<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
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<mo>)</mo>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {\alpha }}}={\begin{pmatrix}0&{\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}\\{\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}&0\end{pmatrix}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e51154c9d154fb591031be1d586c50a5376e1d8d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:14.001ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {\alpha }}}={\begin{pmatrix}0&{\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}\\{\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}&0\end{pmatrix}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>zu <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 4{\times }4}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>4</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
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<mn>4</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 4{\times }4}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0e74e07d31f0c2abc213c4010fbcfced8bc0cf35.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.133ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 4{\times }4}" loading="lazy"></span>-Matrizen erweitert werden. Damit zeigte sich, dass für ein freies Teilchen, für das man also Erhaltung des Drehimpulses ansetzen muss, nicht der Bahndrehimpuls <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {l}}}={\hat {\vec {r}}}\times {\hat {\vec {p}}}}">
<semantics>
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<mo>=</mo>
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<mo>×<!-- × --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {l}}}={\hat {\vec {r}}}\times {\hat {\vec {p}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f25ed076880cca19a725f90da7238ca53a0fe5bf.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.877ex; height:3.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {l}}}={\hat {\vec {r}}}\times {\hat {\vec {p}}}}" loading="lazy"></span> eine Konstante der Bewegung ist, sondern die als <a href="Gesamtdrehimpuls" title="Gesamtdrehimpuls">Gesamtdrehimpuls</a> identifizierte Größe <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {j}}}={\tfrac {\hbar }{2}}{\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}+{\hat {\vec {r}}}\times {\hat {\vec {p}}}}">
<semantics>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {j}}}={\tfrac {\hbar }{2}}{\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}+{\hat {\vec {r}}}\times {\hat {\vec {p}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/79535b851d62871e2c8386014ca8cdd8dc19c3d6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:15.648ex; height:4.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {j}}}={\tfrac {\hbar }{2}}{\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}+{\hat {\vec {r}}}\times {\hat {\vec {p}}}}" loading="lazy"></span>. Das konstante Zusatzglied <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}={\tfrac {\hbar }{2}}{\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}}">
<semantics>
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<mo>=</mo>
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<mfrac>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}={\tfrac {\hbar }{2}}{\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6c84d00b66a9939624a3f8742a8570e529570ab8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:7.445ex; height:3.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {\vec {s}}}={\tfrac {\hbar }{2}}{\hat {\vec {\sigma }}}}" loading="lazy"></span> ist der Spin.
</p><p>Fügt man in die Dirac-Gleichung die Wirkung eines statischen Magnetfelds ein, ergibt sich eine Zusatzenergie wie bei einem <a href="Magnetischer_Dipol" title="Magnetischer Dipol">magnetischen Dipol</a>. Dieser Dipol liegt zum Spin parallel, genau wie der magnetische Dipol eines Kreisstroms parallel zu dessen Bahndrehimpuls liegt. Er hat aber im Vergleich zum Bahndrehimpuls des Kreisstroms genau die doppelte Stärke. Das <a href="Anomales_Magnetisches_Moment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anomales Magnetisches Moment">anomale magnetische Moment</a> des Dirac-Teilchens ist damit um den <a href="Anomaler_g-Faktor" class="mw-redirect" title="Anomaler g-Faktor">anomalen Spin-g-Faktor</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g_{s}=2}">
<semantics>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g_{s}=2}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/621e836f3b4250dd67af610dee13ac6b700bd8e3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.373ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g_{s}=2}" loading="lazy"></span> größer als klassisch verständlich.
</p><p>Das entspricht beim Elektron fast genau dem experimentellen Ergebnis, der genaue Wert ist jedoch ungefähr 2,00232. Diese zusätzliche Abweichung des <a href="Land%C3%A9-Faktor#Elektron" title="Landé-Faktor"> Spin-g-Faktors des Elektrons <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g_{e}}">
<semantics>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g_{e}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f3aefe939a50242cd2141bb6937a11a543fc4645.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.107ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g_{e}}" loading="lazy"></span></a> wird durch die <a href="Quantenelektrodynamik" title="Quantenelektrodynamik">Quantenelektrodynamik</a> erklärt.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anmerkungen">Anmerkungen</h2></div>
<ol class="references" data-mw-group="Anm.">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Beim Kegeln hat die rollende Kugel einen Drehimpuls von ca. <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 3\cdot 10^{33}\;\hbar }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mn>3</mn>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<msup>
<mn>10</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>33</mn>
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</msup>
<mspace width="thickmathspace"></mspace>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 3\cdot 10^{33}\;\hbar }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1bcc440718006b86930701ad48df98e31506ecab.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:8.994ex; height:2.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 3\cdot 10^{33}\;\hbar }" loading="lazy"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mathematisch gesehen ist die SU(2) die Überlagerungsgruppe der SO(3)</span>
</li>
</ol>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Einzelnachweise">Einzelnachweise</h2></div>
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">G. E. Uhlenbeck, S. Goudsmit: <cite style="font-style:italic">Ersetzung der Hypothese vom unmechanischen Zwang durch eine Forderung bezüglich des inneren Verhaltens jedes einzelnen Elektrons</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Naturwissenschaften</cite>. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>13</span>, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Nr.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>47</span>, 1925, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>953–954</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01558878">10.1007/BF01558878</a></span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Spin&rft.atitle=Ersetzung+der+Hypothese+vom+unmechanischen+Zwang+durch+eine+Forderung+bez%C3%BCglich+des+inneren+Verhaltens+jedes+einzelnen+Elektrons&rft.au=G.+E.+Uhlenbeck%2C+S.+Goudsmit&rft.date=1925&rft.doi=10.1007%2FBF01558878&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=47&rft.jtitle=Naturwissenschaften&rft.pages=953-954&rft.volume=13" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">D. M. Dennison: <cite style="font-style:italic">A Note on the Specific Heat of the Hydrogen Molecule</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series A</cite>. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>115</span>, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Nr.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>771</span>, 1927, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>483–486</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1927.0105">10.1098/rspa.1927.0105</a></span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Spin&rft.atitle=A+Note+on+the+Specific+Heat+of+the+Hydrogen+Molecule&rft.au=D.+M.+Dennison&rft.date=1927&rft.doi=10.1098%2Frspa.1927.0105&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=771&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London+Series+A&rft.pages=483-486&rft.volume=115" style="display:none"> </span> Für den Zusammenhang zwischen Kernspin und spezifischer Wärme siehe <a href="Ortho-_und_Parawasserstoff" title="Ortho- und Parawasserstoff">Ortho- und Parawasserstoff</a>. Wie ausgerechnet eine makroskopisch messbare Eigenschaft des H<sub>2</sub>-Moleküls zum Spin der Atomkerne führte, ist ausführlich beschrieben in Jörn Bleck-Neuhaus: <cite style="font-style:italic">Elementare Teilchen. Moderne Physik von den Atomen bis zum Standard-Modell</cite> (= <cite style="font-style:italic">Springer-Lehrbuch</cite>). Springer-Verlag, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-540-85299-5, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Kap.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>7</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-85300-8_7">10.1007/978-3-540-85300-8_7</a></span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abookitem&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Spin&rft.atitle=7&rft.au=J%C3%B6rn+Bleck-Neuhaus&rft.btitle=Elementare+Teilchen.+Moderne+Physik+von+den+Atomen+bis+zum+Standard-Modell&rft.date=2010&rft.doi=10.1007%2F978-3-540-85300-8_7&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=9783540852995&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.series=Springer-Lehrbuch" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayer-Kuckuk, Theo: <cite style="font-style:italic">Atomphysik: Eine Einführung</cite>. Teubner, 1997, ISBN 978-3-519-43042-1, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>127—128</span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Spin&rft.au=Mayer-Kuckuk%2C+Theo&rft.btitle=Atomphysik%3A+Eine+Einf%C3%BChrung&rft.date=1997&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=9783519430421&rft.pages=127%E2%80%94128&rft.pub=Teubner" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Beth: <cite style="font-style:italic">Mechanical Detection and Measurement of the Angular Momentum of Light</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Physical Review</cite>. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>50</span>, 1936, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>115–125</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.50.115">10.1103/PhysRev.50.115</a></span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Spin&rft.atitle=Mechanical+Detection+and+Measurement+of+the+Angular+Momentum+of+Light&rft.au=Richard+Beth&rft.btitle=Physical+Review&rft.date=1936&rft.doi=10.1103%2FPhysRev.50.115&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=115-125&rft.volume=50" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Cornelius_Noack" title="Cornelius Noack">Cornelius Noack</a>: <cite style="font-style:italic">Bemerkungen zur Quantentheorie des Bahndrehimpulses</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Physikalische Blätter</cite>. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>41</span>, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Nr.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>8</span>, 1985, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>283–285</span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.itp.uni-bremen.de/~noack/orb-ang.pdf">siehe Homepage</a> [PDF; <span style="white-space:nowrap">154<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>kB</span>; abgerufen am 26. November 2012]).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Spin&rft.atitle=Bemerkungen+zur+Quantentheorie+des+Bahndrehimpulses&rft.au=Cornelius+Noack&rft.date=1985&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=8&rft.jtitle=Physikalische+Bl%C3%A4tter&rft.pages=283-285&rft.volume=41" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">W. Pauli</a>: <i>Zur Quantenmechanik des magnetischen Elektrons</i>,
Zeitschrift für Physik Bd. 43, S. 601 (1927)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Jun_John_Sakurai" title="Jun John Sakurai">J. J. Sakurai</a>, <i>Modern Quantum Mechanics</i>, Kap. 3.4)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Krey-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Krey_10-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Krey_10-1">b</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Siehe z. B. U. Krey und A. Owen: <i>Basic Theoretical Physics - A Concise Overview</i>, Berlin, Springer 2007, ISBN 978-3-540-36804-5, insbesondere das Kapitel über Einstein-Podolski-Rosen-Paradoxien</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eine einfache Darstellung in uni-bremen.de: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iup.uni-bremen.de/~bleck/Lehrbuch/Zustand_ident_Fermionen.html">Zustand identischer Fermionen</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">P. A. M. Dirac: <cite style="font-style:italic">The Quantum Theory of the Electron</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A</cite>. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>117</span>, <span style="white-space:nowrap">Nr.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>778</span>, 1928, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em"> </span>610–624</span>, <a href="Digital_Object_Identifier" title="Digital Object Identifier">doi</a>:<span class="uri-handle" style="white-space:nowrap"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1928.0023">10.1098/rspa.1928.0023</a></span>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Spin&rft.atitle=The+Quantum+Theory+of+the+Electron&rft.au=P.+A.+M.+Dirac&rft.date=1928&rft.doi=10.1098%2Frspa.1928.0023&rft.genre=journal&rft.issue=778&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+A&rft.pages=610-624&rft.volume=117" style="display:none"> </span></span>
</li>
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